Evaluation of Sigmund Feud and his theory

Evaluation of Sigmund Feud and his theorySigmund Freud may collect pioneered psychoanalysis and initiated interest in behavi spontaneous patterns, further some of his concepts/theories atomic number 18 contr every asssial.Sigmund Freud is one of the well know scientist of his time in the argona of psychology, he is intention everyy referred to as the godfather of psychology. Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, who created an entirely new-made approach to the understanding of the human temper. He is regarded as one of the more or less influential and controersial minds of the 20th century.Sigismund (later changed to Sigmund) Freud was born on the 6 may 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia (now Pribor in the Czech Republic). His father was a merchant. The family moved to Leipzig and and then settled in Vienna, where Freud was educated. Freuds family was Jewish but was himself non-practicing.In 1873, Freud began to study medication at the University of Vie nna. later graduating, he micturateed at the Vienna General Hospital. He collaborated with Josef Breuer in treating hysteria by the recall of painful experiences under hypnosis. In 1885 Freud went to Paris as a student of the neurologist Jean Charcot. On his return to Vienna the following year, Freud set up his private practice, specializing in nervous and brain disorders. The same year he married Martha Bernays, with whom he had six nipperren.Freud developed the theory that humans start an unconscious(p) in which sexual and aggressive impulses are in perpetual conflict for supremacy with the defenses against them. In 1897, he began an intensive analysis of himself. In 1900, his major work The Interpretation of Dreams was print in which Freud analyzed dreams in terms of unconscious desires and experiences.In 1902, Freud was ap seted professor of neuropathology at the University of Vienna, a post he held until 1938. Although the medical establishment disagreed with many of his theories, a group of pupils and followers began to fall in around Freud. In 1910, the Intentional Psychoanalytic Association was founded with Carl Jung, a fold up associate of Freuds, as the president. Jung later broke with Freud and developed his own theories.After world war one, Freud spend less time in clinical observation and concentrated on the application of his theories to art, literature, and anthropology. In 1923, he published The Ego and the Id, which suggested a new structural model of the mind, divided into the Id, the Ego, and the Superego. In 1933, the Nazis publicly burnt a number of Freuds books. In 1938 shortly after the Nazis annexed Austria, Freud left Vienna for London with his wife and daughter Anna. Freud was diagnosed with cancer of the call in 1923, and underwent more than 30 operations. He died of cancer on twenty-third September 1939. (http//bbc.com.uk/history./freud_sigmund.shtml)Freud studied hysteria at length, and became involve with Josef Breuer. D r. Breuer became Freud mentor, and together they co-authored a book on hysteria. It was during these studies that Freud came to realize that the personality was made up of having terce aspects the id, ego, and top-notch ego, (Krogh, D.). The id is the part of personality that is responsible for survival and self gratification, it is our antediluvian mind. It is the source of our libido and has exclusively one rule, satisfying the pleasure principles, (Gay, P.).The ego deals with our coherent thought, it develops our initiateing awareness that you cannot always get what you want. It has a tough line of descent compromising negotiation between the id and the super ego. It pleases the id but also rest responsible and bears the long term consequences in mind.The super ego is the give out part of the mind to develop. It is best described as the moral of personality. The super ego has two sub systems, those been the ego exaltation and conscience. The ego ideal lays down the laws regarding positive behavior and standards which the ego must live up to. The conscience are the sets of rules which define pervert behavior, it houses thoughts and behaviors that would resolve in penalization if they were to be acted out.Freud was also responsible for defining the five stages of psychosexual development, which are briefly explained below.Stage One The oral stage, (0-18 months). During this stage, the physical focus is on the mouth. The young child receives libidinal pleasures while feeding. Any problems at this stage, for example, over indulgence or privation could lead the child to an oral personality in adulthood suggesting, that the adult would partake in extensive oral activities e.g. smoking, drinking, or eating disorders, (Gay, P.).Stage two The anal stage (18-36 months). Freud believed that the child experienced erogenous pleasure while defecating. Potty training takes place round about this time, so that the child had to learn control over its bowels. Al so the caregiver put options emphasis on the child to control urges regarding deviant behavior (often called the terrible twos). If the caregiver is too controlling the child is belike to grow to have a retentive personality e.g. the adult give have rigid thought complexes, be overly organized, and obsessed with neatness. On the otherwise hand, if the caregiver is not controlling enough, the child will grow up to be messy, untidy and could possibly be defiant with teensy self-control, (Feldman, R, F).Stage Three The phallic stage (3-6 years).The physical focus at this stage for both boys and girls is the penis boys wonder why girls havent got one. In return, girls kale noticing that they are without one and become curious. Also during this stage, Freud suggested that children have sexual feelings for the mated sexed parent, (so they deal with Oedipus and Electra complexes respectively). Boys experience castrations anxiety and girls suffer penis envy (the lack of). Fixation at this stage could result in sleeping around and immoral behavior, (Feldman, R,F.).Stage four The latency stage,(6 years to the onset of puberty). This is a calm period where virtually no psychosexual conflicts are fetching place. Boys and girls tend to be gender aware thorough this stage and have little in common with the opposite sex, (Feldman, R.F.).Stage five The venereal stage (post puberty). If all transitions of the above stages have been smooth and the caregiver has responded in a relevant well balanced manner. A healthy able adult should emerge, fully equipped to contribute to society emotionally, and physically. If on the other hand, one or more of the transitions have been stricken, a fixation of the impaired stage will occur. Stress will trigger the adult to slide by to the particular impaired stage in question, (Feldman, R,F).As straight preliminary and relevant as Freuds theories were, he was not without criticism , Carl Jung, Karl Krus et al, and T.S. Szasz are a mong a few who strongly object to Freuds findings (Robinson, P. Feud and his critics). Could they have a point? For all Freuds genius, he failed to incorporate genetic influences regarding behavior in his studies. Freud dealt only in the unconscious mind, with a few age related triggers thrown and twisted in, and that our whole personality is based on the development of these triggers. These triggers were purely Freuds interpretation. doings on the other hand, deals solely with environmental factors, and believes that babies are born as a blank slate, often termed tabula rassaFreud is also accused of been totally native and having a bias attitude. An example of this would be that he based all his findings on his recollections and findings (Robinson, P. Freud and his critics). He did conduct research using his youngest daughter Anna, but this form of opportunity sampling is not productive, because being his daughter, she would strive to score socially desirable answers.When conduc ting psychoanalysis, Freuds patients were always middle class women. This was not a representative samples of the population, the data collected from his analysis would again be bias. opposite arguments against the proficiency of Freuds practices are that due to patientProblems occurring in childhood, this may result in parental blame. There are also problems surrounding irrational memory syndromes, it has been found that patients receiving Freudian analysis have imagined childhood abuse. These allegations could be imagined and have no facts, (Robinson, P. Freud and his critics). Also the whole model of psychoanalysis is non-scientific, it cannot be falsified.So there we have it, the basic from which Freud conducted his psychoanalysis. In its day it was a revolution but certainly not without opposition, as previously discussed Freud managed to put words, terms, and phases to complex notions regarding personality and unravel almost simplify intricate developmental processes, enabli ng Freudian psychologists to accurately define and hopefully rectify a patients regressed emotional problems.Was Feud practicing a pseudo-science? Are his findings mere quackery? Were his theories on psychoanalysis a revolutionary breakthrough? Either way mess will remain divided.

Impact of Dividend Announcement on Shareholder Value

Impact of Dividend Announcement on Sh atomic number 18holder encourageDifferent studies suggest that dividend payment has no impact on deal out holder valuate in the absence of taxes and foodstuff imperfection. Whenever companies moderate everywhereindulgence earning, they should invest it in projects having imperative net puzzle value. Anformer(a) barbel is that, the stock value depends upon expected future dividend of that stock. So companies must sift to reflect a sustainable growth while announcing dividends. This study is to find the impact of dividend promulgation on sh ar proclaimer value. This study is based on 17 dividend paying companies, listed on Karachi Stock Exchange. The result shows that investors did non gain from dividend contract, but lost some value everyplace a bound of 30 long condemnation prior to dividend annunciation through 20 twenty-four hourss after(prenominal) ex-dividend date. Results of study is supporting the dividend irreveren ce hypothesis, that at that place is no utility of shareholder in announcement of dividend.Literature ReviewThe ultimate butt of any corpo count entity is to maximize the shareholder value. For the accomplishment of this objective, Finance managers build three kinds of big decisions. First two decisions are investment and financial support decisions and the third unrivalled is regarding dividend payment to shareholders. Now the question is that whether the payment of dividend increases shareholder value or not. As dividend mean reward that shareholders already have got in a corporation, so it is adjusted by decline in stock value (Porterfield 1959 and 1965). Generally shareholders select capital gain over cash dividend and the reason is tax pattern. Normally dividend is taxed at high rate as compared to the capital gain. So if we neglect the assumption of tax and other restrictions, then dividend announcement has no impact on shareholders value (Miller and Modigliani, 1961) .Investors value a clam of expected dividend more exceedingly than a dollar of expected capital gain because the dividend surrender component is less untamed as compared to growth component. (Gorden 1963) If a firm pay the whole fracture of its earning as dividend then it is most possible that there leave alone be shortage of funds for investment which may cause decrease in dividend in the future. Another related approach is that dividend announcement burden the merchandise price of stocks because it carries the information of future cash flow of firm (Bhattacharya 1979, Baryosef and Huffman 1986).Shareholders have no benefit in the announcement of dividend. As the shares value move from thirty years before announcement of dividend to thirty long time after dividend announcement. But these losses are partially compensated by dividend yield in long run (Hamid Uddin, 2003). In some countries like Pakistan, companies are ranked on the basis of dividend payout and some rules by SECP also hale the companies to pay dividend. Considering the benefits of capital gain over cash dividend this is not a better approach at all (Dr. Ahmad Kaleem Chaudhary Salahuddin).The whole literature canvass is based on two ideologies. One is that the dividend announcement has a positive consanguinity with stock prices (Gordon 1963) and the second is that the dividend announcement has a negative relationship with stock prices (Bhattacharya 1979, Baryosef, Huffman 1986 and Hamid Uddin, 2003). The positive relationship between stock prices and dividend announcement is due to dividend information effect, while the negative relationship is because of tax effect.IntroductionWhenever a company generates profit, it either goes for reinvestment or pay dividend. If a company is passage to pay dividend then it takes decision of whether to pay cash dividend or to vitiate back some of the existing stocks. The question is if a company has prospect of investment in a project having positive net present value then why should company go for dividend? According to irrelevancy Theory by Merton Miller and Franco Modigliani (MM) a firms dividend policy has no effect on shareholder value and cost of capital of that firm. The most important thing is the earning of a company nor the dividend policy or reinvestment plans. Assuming there are no taxes and brokerage costs. According to Porterfield (1959 and 1965) paying cash dividend intend giving rewards to shareholders that is something they already own in a company. Hence this will offset by declining in the stock value. So paying dividend is not a good approach at all. According to Gorden (1963) investors prefer a dollar of present more than that of expected future one. Thats why companies should go for dividend instead of capital gain.All the theories regarding payment of cash dividend have their own approaches and directions. So the issue of whether paying cash dividend has any impact on shareholder value or not i s still unresolved. In countries where dividend income is highly taxable as compared to capital gain, investors prefer capital gain over cash dividend. There is another face of picture, in countries like Pakistan where companies are ranked according to rate of dividend paid by them, companies normally prefer to pay cash dividend.In this study we have examined the effect of dividend announcement on shareholders value. To do so, we have selected 17 dividend paying companies from eight diverse sectors and use the methodology of Market Adjusted defective take place (MAAR) and accumulative deviate Return (CAR).MethodologyTo study the impact of dividend announcement on shareholder value, two measurement have been used. (i) Market Adjusted Abnormal Return (MAAR). (ii) additive Abnormal Return (CAR). MAAR indicates the relative daily ploughshare price change in the dividend paying stocks compared to the change in norm market price. We use KSE 100 price index as placeholder of averag e market price. MAAR is calculated as follows.MAARit = Rit-RmtMAARit it is the market adjusted antidromic turn over for security i over time t.Rit is the time t return on secutiry I, calculated as (Pit Pit-1)/Pit-1. Where, Pit is the market ending price of stock I on day t. Pit is the market closing price of stock I on day t-1.Rmt is the time t return on the KSE-100 price index calculated as (It-It-1)/It-1. Where. Iit is the market index on day t. It-1 is the market index on day t-1.The market adjusted abnormal return (MAAR) shows the change in individual stocks value due to the dividend announcement. As the per centum change in market index is deducted, the remainder gives us the allot of the value change, which is particularized to that particular stock resulting from its dividend announcement. MAAR is calculated over a finale starting line to 30 days to +20 days relative to the dividend announcement day (O-day).The second measure used is cumulative abnormal return (CAR) , which measures the investor number return over a period starting from before the announcement of dividend to after the dividend announcement day. We use a 51 day window period starting from -30 day to + 20 day relative to the dividend announcement day (O-day). CAR is computed as follows.CARit = MAARit CARt = CARitWhere CARit is cumulative abnormal return for security I and CARit is cumulative abnormal return for all securities. in addition MAAR it is market adjusted abnormal return for security I for window period. After that all, the t-test suggested in Brown and Warner (1990, p251-252) is applied to test the significance of CARit and CARt. consume DescriptionThe sample includes 17 companies, from eight different sectors. All these companies are registered on Karachi Stock Exchange (KSE) and announced dividend between January 2009 and December 2009. tailfin companies are from banking sector, three from oil and gas, three from cement, two from chemical, one from Pharmaceutic al, one from auto assembler, one from textile and again one from telecom sector. flurry 1 is showing the names of companies with percentage of dividend announced by them in respective year.Empirical findings and analysisMarket Adjusted Abnormal ReturnMAAR shows the change in individual stocks value due to the dividend announcement. As the percentage change in market index is deducted, the remainder gives us the portion of the value change, which is specific to that particular stock resulting from its dividend announcement. In this study, MAAR is calculated over a period starting to 30 days to +20 days relative to the dividend announcement day on zero days.Cumulative Abnormal ReturnCAR which measures the investor total return over a period starting from before the announcement of dividend to after the dividend announcement day.Table 1Sample CompaniesSr. No party NameSector1Habib Bank expressageBanking2 consort Bank LimitedBanking3 topic Bank of PakistanBanking4United Bank LimitedBa nking5Bank AlFalah LimitedBanking6OGDCL anoint and Gas7National Refinery LimitedOil and Gas8Pakistan State OilOil and Gas9 comfortable CementCement10DG CementCement11Attock CementCement12ICI Pakistan ltd.chemical substance13Engro Chemical LtdChemical14Highnoon Labortories ltd.Pharmaceutical15Indus go Company ltd.Auto Assembler16Nishat Mill ltd. fabric17Pakistan Telecom Co.TelecomTable 2Dividend paid by different sectors in 2009 (Dividend in %age)SectorNo of CompaniesMaximum DividendMinimum Dividend ordinary DividendBanking5662528.5Oil and Gas3cxxv2567Cement340Chemical2656062.5Pharmaceutical1252525Auto Assembler1100100100Textile1202020Telecom1151515Table 3Average MAAR for 51 daysDays relative to Dividend AnnouncementAverage MAAR-300.006995623-29-0.000286981-280.005946367-270.005136643-260.005144653-25-0.004782532-24-0.005356564-23-0.002944433-22-0.01411987-200.004907264-190.00128167-18-0.00011111-17-0.001020032-160.001673402-150.000430173-140.002846477-13-0.001693558-120.002657397-1 1-0.016735807-10-0.013092062-9-0.005113378-8-0.000797798-7-0.015879282-6-0.005853397-5-0.006602591-4-0.010009299-3-0.002897751-2-0.009621279-10.002602260-0.00790893210.0056218322-0.0112607433-0.0011712854-0.00323616750.00045519860.0027136157-0.00248302480.0061077799-0.00598656410-0.00671953711-0.00366146312-0.00255736130.00129841514-0.00302066615-0.01318473616-0.00164779617-0.000315768180.00673391719-0.00976642220-0.000404328Table 4Cumulative Abnormal ReturnCompany NameCARitHabib Bank Limited0.007539Allied Bank Limited-0.23825National Bank of Pakistan-0.13679United Bank Limited-0.56202Bank AlFalah Limited-0.46642OGDCL0.077864National Refinery Limited-0.17524Pakistan State Oil0.368848Lucky Cement-0.14289DG Cement-0.08247Attock Cement-0.2001ICI Pakistan ltd.0.04316Engro Chemical Ltd-0.32989Highnoon Labortories ltd.0.02233Indus Motor Company ltd.-0.31301Nishat Mill ltd.0.09022Pakistan Telecom Co.-0.13362CARt-2.17073

Impact of the Industrial Revolution

Impact of the industrial rotary motion advise you imagine life without these moulds?IntroductionAt the dawn of the 18th century, proficient and scientific advancements led to England being atomic number 53 of the most powerful and prospered maritime power in the world. Foreign slew had scaled sassy heights and the demand for manufactured goods had increased. As a result of the intention of machinery for agriculture, there was not much put to work in the rural areas. spate migrated to towns looking for opportunities for work. Manufacturers attempted to find ways to increase production to bear on the new demands. All these factors, among an opposite(prenominal)s, led to what was later termed as The industrial revolution by historian Arnold Tonybee.Onset of the industrial vicissitudeLife onward the industrial variation was tough. For centuries, man had relied on animals and himself, to do all the work and make objects of daily use. With new technological advancements, ma n started to rely on technology to perform similar tasks quickly and efficiently. This slipperiness from an agrarian thriftiness where hand tools were used, to wizard, where machines much(prenominal) as the come drill, steam engine, and so forth were invented, factories were established, resulting in complete change in the life of the hatful is termed as the industrial Revolution.Features of the Industrial RevolutionOne of the most important features of the Industrial Revolution was the various tricks made during the time that went on to change the course of recital forever. Eli Whitneys blind of the cotton plant gin helped separate the cotton from its author approximately fifty times faster than sooner. Jethro Hull, a farmer, invented a seed drill which planted grains very efficiently. Increase in the production of stark material meant that there was loads of raw material to be processed, curiously in the case of textiles such as cotton. A weaver named pile Hargrea ves gave the much needed breakthrough by inventing the spinning jenny, a machine that spun many threads at once, though they were thick. Richard Awkright, invented the spinning frame, alike cognize as the water frame. It spun thicker thread into thinner and stronger ones. It was Samuel Cromptons spinning scuff that made the large scale production of yarn possible. Edmund Cartwright invented the power bulk large that further increased the production of cloth and reduced labour be as well. institutions of machines led to the formation of factories for production of cloth. Mass production of cotton and cotton fabrics led to a great reduction in the prices. These inventions changed the socio- economic affable structure of England as weavers and workers were able to earn good wages and lead a better life.Although the cotton mills marked the beginning of the Industrial revolution, it is the invention of James Watts steam engine that powered and proceed it. The steam engine used the force of steam to power engines. Invention of this machine brought about many changes in England. Factory owners realised that they could at one time build factories where people lived and need not construct them it near a water source, as they did earlier. It was Abraham Darbys ability to cast iron in a coke- kindleed furnace that enabled inventors like Thomas Newcomen to have his steam engines cast by Darby3. Henry Bessemers invention of the Bessemer Converter enabled in valuable manufacture of vane abundantly. The transportation system was completely all overhauled when steam powered trains and other locomotives were built. The duty period of roads and railways made travel and shipping of goods fairly comfortable and cheap. 4 5 6 7 8The invention of the steam engine, usage on iron and steel in ships was recyclable in manufacturing ships that were much faster. Ships started voyaging through oceans which in turn increased trade even further. This period of intense industriali sation witnessed a major change in architecture and infrastructure. New towns came up that boasted of town halls, libraries, gardens, concert halls, etc. 9Another important feature of the Industrial Revolution was the change in the socio-economic life of the people. As factories were set up and towns formed, people moved to towns in search of employment which made urbanization, a common feature of the Industrial Revolution. Historians are of the opinion that although nigh women stayed at home to look after the children, many worked in factories with their husbands. Sometimes, children were made to work in factories as well.In general, the Industrial Revolution improved the standard of living of the people as they were able to afford the basic necessities of life and could indulge in waste activities during their free time. People read books, went on vacation, enjoyed concerts or spent old age on the beach, educated themselves, etc. to pass their time. People started to take an re ady part in politics as well. 10Why did the Industrial Revolution originate in England?Having read about the different features of the Industrial Revolution, it this instant becomes imperative to read about certain conditions that came together to set the context for its inception. Colonies like India were a good source of raw material such as cotton for their factories in England. The colonies were good markets too as they switch their manufactured goods there. Being a supreme maritime power with one of the largest ships in the world, it was easy for England to transport the raw material and the finished products. A stable government at the centre, with few restrictions on the economy, helped the industry and calling to thrive. Laws made by the government favoured the companies that set up factories and businesses. Natural resources such as coal and iron were available in abundance to be used in factories. Streams and rivers in England were used to generate power and served as a medium of transportation of goods and raw materials. England, to begin with, was a lucky country and people had extra money to spend on other things besides the basic needs of food, clothing and shelter.11Impact of the Industrial RevolutionThe Industrial Revolution became the most noteworthy ensemble of social, cultural and economic change that affected human history. Let us discuss some of them.There was a tremendous increase in population during the Industrial Revolution as the standard of living improved and fewer people died due to diseases.The Industrial Revolution led to capitalism, that is, the business was owned in private and operated primarily for profit.The industrial revolution divided the society into different classes the pulverization owners who owned the factory and the workers who worked for him. The owners of the factories exploited the workers to maximise their profit.New cities and towns came up as the factory owners established factories closer to where the y lived. People who worked in factories had to leave their houses and shift to these places, often with their families.The Industrial Revolution completely changed the lives of the workers. From being a craftsperson who worked using hand tools, he was merely reduced to a machine operator.Weavers and other craftsmen who tried to make a living by making goods at home found it difficult to sell their products as their hand-made goods were more expensive than the machine-made ones.The Industrial Revolution gave rise to imperialism. England was faced with two problems during the Industrial revolution Procuring of cheap raw materials and a market for their manufactured goods. They puzzle out these problems by gaining political and economic control over weaker countries. 12Though the Industrial Revolution began in England, it gradually spread to the other countries of the world as well.ImperialismIndustrialisation stirred the aspirations of England. They wanted to maximise the profit of their industries. England wanted resources to fuel their production as well as a market to sell their goods. Weaker countries such as India were the perfect target. This policy of England to acquire political, economic and social control over a weaker country is known as imperialism. Imperialism was one of the worst impacts of industrialisation. England sourced the raw materials of their products from these countries and sold the manufactured products in these countries itself at unconscionable prices. Imperialism involves the use of power, military or otherwise to exercise control over the weaker country. 13Imperialism destroyed the culture and the subject areaal anesthetic industries of the colonies. Inexpensive foreign goods destroyed the markets of local indigenous products. No effort was made to modernize the colonies. Agriculture was also affected as the imperialists allowed the colonies to grow those crops that were beneficial to them, whether or not it was contributory to the locals.We shall study about the British policies and plans in India later in the book. peep into the Past push BridgeThe Worlds first Iron Bridge built on River Severnin England is one of the most famous industrial monuments in Britain. Shropshire, the area in which it was built was famous for its coal deposits. The horrific Severn gorge posed a problem for transportation of people and goods. room decorator Thomas Pritchard suggested ironmaster John Wilenson make the iron bridge. Though Wilkenson started the project in 1777, the iron bridge was completed by Abraham Darby in 1779. It was opened to the familiar on January 1, 1781. The bridge was used for over 150 years before it was shut down for vehicles in 1934. The Iron Bridge was designated as an antediluvian patriarch monument. It is now a World Heritage Site.1 http//www.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/online_research_catalogues/paper_money/paper_money_of_england__wales/the_industrial_revolution.aspx2 World Soc ities Mckay agglomerate pg 747, 748, 7493 http//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ content/151458/Abraham-Darbyref2198214 HOLT, Human Legacy, Page 634, 635, 636, 6375 World Socities Mckay Hill pg 750-751-7526 http//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143809/Samuel-Crompton7 http//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/151458/Abraham-Darby8 http//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/642887/Eli-Whitney9 http//www.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/online_research_catalogues/paper_money/paper_money_of_england__wales/the_industrial_revolution/the_industrial_revolution_2.aspx10 HOLT, Human Legacy, page 649, 650, 651, andhttp//www.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/online_research_catalogues/paper_money/paper_money_of_england__wales/the_industrial_revolution/the_industrial_revolution_3.aspx11 HOLT, Human Legacy, pages 633, 634, 63512 http//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/287086/Industrial-Revolution13 http//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/283988/imperialism

Current cognitive models of PTSD

Current cognitive mouldings of post damagetic stress disturbanceThe handling literary productions of the past twenty years reflects an enormous interest in disc everywhereing the most impelling psychological therapy for clients with a diagnosis of posthurttic stress disorder, post damagetic stress disorder. The boilers suit aim of this paper is to critic ally evaluate current cognitive models of posttraumatic stress disorder and literature on the impellingness of cognitive behavioural therapies to treat this disorder found on these models.Definitions of posttraumatic stress disorderIn the Fourth edition of the diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) trauma is defined as (a) The person experienced, witnessed or was confronted with an event that involved actual or perceived threat to life or physical integrity and (b) the persons ablaze retort to this event included horror, wait onless(prenominal)ness or intense fear. Foa and Meadows (1997, p. 450).In DSM-IV psychological symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder are categorised into deuce-ace chunk symptoms re-experiencing, avoidance/ dull and increased arousal, which arise after the person is exposed to a traumatic stressor. The recurrent re-experiencing symptoms e.g. flashbacks, nightmares, intrusive thoughts, stool been considered the hallmark of posttraumatic stress disorder (e.g. Foa Rothbaurn, 1992). The entropy cluster includes avoidance of trauma-related stimuli and numbing of ecumenical responsiveness e.g. deliberately avoiding trauma-related stimuli and symptoms of worked up numbing (Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, Perry, 1995 Litz, 1993). The latter are considered distinguishing features of posttraumatic stress disorder (Foa Meadows, 1997). The third symptom cluster includes increased arousal e.g. hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, difficulty sleeping and temper (APA, 1994).Current Government Guidelines on the preaching of posttraumatic stress disorderDe experimental conditionining utile and efficient words for posttraumatic stress disorder has become a earlierity in scant(p) of the instructs prevalence and the many techniques and handlings obtainable. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence, NICE, reviewed the most lively government issue interrogation and produced guidelines, to inform and guide clinical practice for the psychological sermon of PTSID in adults (NICE, 2005). The guidelines were found on an independent, systematic, rigorous and multistage process of identifying, reviewing and value evidence for the effectual give-and-take of posttraumatic stress disorder. These guidelines conclude that privates with posttraumatic stress disorder should receive either trauma focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, TFCBT or Eye impetus Desensitisation and Re regard, EMDR. However, a distinction is made between single concomitant trauma and much complex presentations, and th e guidelines apprise increasing the total crook of sessions accordingly. Although the guidelines search ministrant for the intercession of single incident posttraumatic stress disorder, they are arguably non as informative for discourse onrushes for a large radical of individuals with complex PTSD. This presents difficulties for the clinician and client in deciding the most effective healing(predicate) options.Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is the most extensively enquiryed therapy for individuals with PTSD (Foa Meadows, 1997) and many studies back off its susceptibility in diminution symptom severity (e.g. Foa et al., 1995 Foa Jaycox, 1996 Foa, Rothbaurn, Riggs, Murdock, 1991 Resick Schnicke, 1992 Richards, Lovell, Marks, 1994 Thompson, Charlton, Kerry, Lee, Turner, 1995). However, CBT for PTSD encompasses different techniques. These include characterisation procedures, cognitive restructuring procedures, and combinations of both these techniques.Exposure T herapyExposure therapy is based on the premise that imaginal impression (IE) to the trauma or feared situation, leads to symptom reduction. The speculation argues prolonged activation of traumatic memories leads to emotional processing of the affective information, dependence of apprehension and integration of corrective information (Foa et al., 1995). Numerous studies do demonstrate that intercession based on exposure therapy is efficacious in reducing PTSD (e.g. Foa et al., 1999 Frueh, Turner, Beidel, Mirabella, J angiotensin converting enzymes, 1996 Keane, Fairbank, Cadell, Zimmering, 1989).Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and Murdoch (1991) investigated exposure therapy, stress inoculation (a type of Anxity Management Treatment, AMT), confirmative direction, and a non- intercession radical in the word of PTSD as a terminus of rape. Clinical ratings of symptoms and standardized psychometric tests were examined in advance and after discourse as tumefy as at a 3- month find ou t-up. The stress inoculation intervention showed greater results than the counselling and non-treatment conditions at post-test. However, at the follow-up, the individuals participating in exposure therapy showed to a greater extent rises of PTSD symptoms than individuals in the a nonher(prenominal) conventions.Research has investigated the strength of exposure therapy compared to different methods of treatment. For instance, Tarrier et al. (1999) investigated exposure therapy and cognitive therapy in the treatment of individuals with PTSD arising from several different traumatic incidents. The two groups demonstrated noteworthy lower in PTSD symptoms that was still present at the 6-month follow up. Although results were absolute for both groups, there was no non-treatment influence against which these two alive(p) treatments could be evaluated.Similarly, Foa et al. (1999) compared exposure therapy to AMT and then combined the two treatments. These three groups were compare d to a non-treatment mark group. All three of these treatments effectively reduced symptoms of rape-related PTSD and resulted in usable improvement. There were no disputes among the three treatment groups on outcome measures, besides all three groups improved more than the non-treatment parity group did.In a pack that once again compared exposure therapy to cognitive therapy, Marks, Lovell, Noshirvani, Livanou, and fox shark (1998) examined these two treatments alone and in combination in outpatients with PTSD alternative to a wide deviate of traumatic events. A heartsease therapy condition was employed as the primary comparison group. All three active treatment conditions showed profound improvement, and greater improvement than that observed in the relaxation group. The three active treatments did not differ from one another on the key outcome variables.Several investigations fill advanced the field of PTSD treatment, even though the methodology utilized in the outcome study limited the consequences that could be receden. Frank and Stewart (1983) reported the effects of systematic desensitization on women who had been raped and who developed significant psychological symptomatology. Compared to an untreated comparison group, those women treated with graduated exposure improved most on a range of anxiety and depression symptom measures.Richards, Lovell, and Marks (1994) compared imaginal and in vivo exposure in a randomized study of survivors of diverse traumatic events. At the 12-month follow-up, patients reported consistent reductions in PTSD symptoms and improved social adjustment. These information further substantiate the effectiveness of exposure therapy for some individuals, and also suggest that improvements in symptoms are also reflected in critical domains of life functioning. In summary, the existing data give birth the use of exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD. In a previous review of this literature, Solomon, Gerrity, and Muff, (1992), (Sited in Shapiro, 1995) derived the akin conclusion from data available at that magazine. Similar conclusions were drawn by Otto, Penava, Pollack, and Smoller (1996) in a more recent review of the literature.In what whitethorn in conclusion prove to be an important lesson for the treatment of individuals exposed to traumatic events, Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, and Perry (1995) examined the efficacy of a brief intervention to prevent the development of continuing PTSD. For women who had been tardily raped, the authors developed a program based upon that which worked so well in earlier trials with chronic PTSD. Exposure therapy figured prominently in the share of treatments assembled. This package also included elements of teaching method, breathing retraining, and cognitive restructuring. When individuals receiving the package were compared to a matched control group, this study found that at 2 months after intervention only 10% of the treated group met criteria for PTS D, while 70% of the untreated comparison group did.As information continues to grow on exposure therapy, there is a distinct need for studies to examine combinations of treatments, to employ measures that survey social and occupational functioning, and to address the involve of treatments on comorbid psychological conditions. Clearly, the available efficacy studies demonstrate the value of extending the use of exposure therapies to patients with PTSD. However hereafter studies assessing the generalization of exposure therapy from laboratory trials to clinical settings would be especially useful.When exposure therapy has been compared to other forms of cognitive therapy, such as cognitive restructuring (see below), it has proved to be more victoryful in reducing PTSD. Tarrier et al., (1999) compared Cognitive Therapy (CT) with imaginal exposure therapy (IE) for 72 flock with chronic PTSD, and concluded that there was no significant difference between the two groups initially or at 12 month follow up. Participants recruited were obtained from a standard of referrals to primary and secondary mental health services and voluntary services, indicating that they were representative of a genuine clinical sample. However, 50% of the sample remained above clinical significance for PTSD symptoms after treatment was completed, although this dropped to 25% at six-month follow-up. This lack of improvement whitethorn get down been influenced by participants failure to attend sessions first-stringly. advertizemore, those who did not show improvement rated the therapy as less credible and were rated as less motivated by the therapist. Therefore, it is argued that motivation for therapy and regular attendance plays an important role in outcome of therapy regardless of treatment model. A further limitation of this study was that no control group was used and non-specific treatment occurrenceors and spontaneous remission could also account for the improvements in repo rted symptoms.Cognitive RestructuringCognitive restructuring is based on the theory that identifying and modifying harmful and unrealistic interpretations of the traumatic experience leads to symptom reduction. Recent models hurl punctuate the importance of correcting cognitive distortions in the adaptive recovery of people adjacent trauma (Ehlers Clarke, 2000).Ehlers, Clark, Hackmann, McManus, and Fennell (2005) utilized cognitive therapy based on the cognitive model of PTSD (see Ehlers Clarke, 2000). From this model, the aim of therapy is to modify excessively negative appraisals, correct the autobiographical memory disturbance and to remove the problematic behavioural and cognitive strategies. In a randomised controlled trial, twenty-eight participants who were referred to a community mental health team were diagnosed with PTSD. Fourteen participants were haphazardly allocated to immediate cognitive therapy or a 13-week waiting list condition. Those receiving cognitive the rapy had 12 weekly treatment sessions, based on the Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model of trauma focused CBT. Participants completed self-report measures of PTSD symptoms, depression, anxiety and also completed the Sheehan Disability Scale (APA, 2000). Measures were completed pre and post treatment and at 6 month follow up. Results found that CT for PTSD was superior to a 3-month waiting list condition on measures of PTSD symptoms, disability and associated symptoms of anxiety and depression.This study had no dropouts, which is a significant improvement on other studies, which Yielded mellow dropout evaluate. (e.g. Tarrier et al., 1999). Participants displayed a positive budge in cognitive appraisals. The Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model suggest that two other pathways of change, change in autobiographical memory of the trauma, and dropping of maintaining behaviours and cognitive strategies as integral in reducing symptoms of PTSD. Although the treatment turn to these other two factor s, these stick not been systematically measured, so it is difficult to conclude whether clients experienced a change in these two battlefields.Further analysis indicated that demographic, trauma and diagnostic variables did not predict treatment outcome, suggesting that the treatment is applicable to a wide range of trauma survivors. However, the degree in variation of trauma and small sample numbers suggests that this finding would not be present in a larger sample. Co-morbid depression and previous trauma history, which was present in over half the sample, did not negatively affect outcome.Combinations of therapyResick and Schnicke (1992) leave proffered a third-dimensional behavioural treatment package for women who have rape-related PTSD. This package, entitled cognitive processing therapy (CPT), combines elements of exposure therapy, Anxiety Management Training (AMT), and cognitive restructuring. The cognitive therapy segment of CPT involves addressing key cognitive disto rtions found among women who have been assaulted. In particular, these authors have designed interventions for addressing difficulties in true(p)ty, assurance, power, self-esteem, and intimacy in the lives of survivors. In a preliminary rating of CPT, the authors compared outcomes at pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3 months follow-up, and 6 months follow-up for a treatment group and a non-treatment comparison group (no random assignment was used). On clinician ratings and psychometric inventories of PTSD, the individuals receiving CPT improved markedly. At the post-treatment assessment, impressively, none of the treated patients met criteria for PTSD.In a deep completed study, Resick, Nishith, and Astin (2000) reported on a comparison of CPT and exposure therapy in the treatment of rape-related PTSD. In general, the two treatments were equally effective and more effective than a non-treatment control condition. CPT did also seem to reduce comorbid symptoms of depression, as well as those of PTSD.Combination treatments that include an array of cognitive-behavioural strategies have the advantage of addressing multiplex problems that people with PTSD may exhibit, as well as incorporating techniques that have considerable empirical support in the clinical literature. Keane, Fisher, Krinsley, and Niles (1994) described a treatment package including exposure therapy, AMT, and cognitive restructuring as central features of their approach to treating PTSD. This package employs a phase oriented approach to treating severe and chronic PTSD that includes the avocation six phases (1) behavioural stabilization (2) trauma education (3) AMT (4) trauma focus work (5) relapse prevention skills and (6) aftercare procedures.Although this approach has clinical appeal, it wasnt until psychologists Fecteau and Nicki (1999) examined such a package in a randomized clinical trial for PTSD secondary to motor vehicle accidents that the impact of a combination package such as that p roposed by Keane et al. (1994) was assessed. Their intervention consisted of trauma education, relaxation training, exposure therapy, cognitive restructuring, and guided behavioural practice. Patients were randomly assigned to the intervention or to a non-treatment comparison group and get some 810 sessions of individualized treatment. The results of the intervention were successful as measured by clinical ratings, self-report questionnaires, and a laboratory-based psycho-physiological assessment procedure. Described by the authors as clinically and statistically significant, these treatment effects were maintained at the 6-month follow-up assessment.Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie, Dang, and Nixon (2003) studied the effects of IE alone or IE with CR in the treatment of PTSD. They hypothesised that CR combined with IE would result in greater PTSD symptom reduction than exposure alone, which in turn would have greater benefits than a corroboratory counselling condition. 58 civilian trauma survivors, diagnosed with PTSD as measured by Clinician Administered. PTSD Scale, version 2, CAPS-2, (Blake et al., 1995) were randomly allocated to one of the three conditions. Each participant certain eight weekly 90-minute sessions of either IE, CR and IE or supportive counselling. Participants completed assessments at pre and post treatment and 6 month follow up. These measured PTSD symptoms and psychopathology. Forty-five participants completed treatment and analysis indicated that dropouts had higher(prenominal) scores for depression, avoidance and higher catastrophic cognitions than those who completed. Results indicated that participants receiving both IE and IE/CR had greater reductions in PTSD symptoms and anxiety than supportive counselling (SC).The major finding of this study was that therapy involving IE and CR leads to greater reductions in CAPS-2 intensity scores than therapy involving IE alone. Furthermore, those receiving IE/CR, but not IE alone, reported fewer av oidance, depression and catastrophic cognitions than those receiving SC. The results from this study indicated that the combination of IE and CR are effective in reducing symptoms of PTSD. It can be argued that the reasons why IE/CR may have been more effective than augmented treatments in the past (e.g. Foa et al., 1999) was that the study carefully controlled for the standard of time actively spent on each treatment component. Furthermore, participants were instructed on CR before commencing IE so they understood the rationale behind the techniques prior to addressing the strong emotional components of IE. This may have increased their understanding and view that it was a credible treatment approach.The finding that CR enhanced the treatment gains of IE may have been mediated by several workable mechanisms. IE and CR may involve common elements, including processing of emotional memories, integration of corrective information and development of self-mastery (Marks, 2000). Combi ning both interventions may provide the individual with greater opportunity to benefit. CR may have lead to greater symptom reduction as it specifically addressed identification and modification of maladaptive cognitions that may contribute to maintenance of PTSD and associated problems (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Paunovic and Ost (2001), compared treatment outcome data for CBT and exposure therapy for sixteen refugees with PTSD. The authors excluded those who became too broken in the initial interview, expressed a lack of confidence in the therapist or were misusing alcohol or drugs. Results indicated there was no significant difference between participants completing CBT or exposure therapy, being quasi(prenominal) to Tarrier et als (1999) findings.Criticisms of Paunovic and Ost (2001)s study are that participants did not use a self-report trauma measure, so although results are positive, there is no clear analysis of whether participants matte their trauma symptoms decreased as a result of the treatment. Further, it is not affirmable to generalise these findings to traumatised refugees in general, as this work is unique. Working with the use of an representative raises several ethical and sensitive issues, as the participant must be able to develop a redress bond with the therapist and trust the interpreter (Tribe, 2007). It could be argued that participants may have been experiencing a greater degree of trauma, not least because they had not yet learned the native language. handlingThe most effective CBT programs appear to be those that rely on recurrent exposure to the trauma memory (Foa et al., 1999 Foa et al., 1991 Foa Rothbaum, 1992) on cognitive restructuring of the meaning of the trauma, (Ehlers Clarke, 2000) or a combination of these methods, (Resick Schnicke, 1992). Importantly, studies have concluded that trauma focused CBT is more effective than supportive counselling (Blanchard et al., 2003 Bryant et al., 2003).Whilst the studies reviewed have helpfully added to our understanding of PTSD there are numerous limitations of the applications of the findings. One in particular is an over-reliance on non-clinical samples of participants such that many claims of clinically effective therapy have been made from seek with participants who were not within mental health systems, and despite having PTSD symptoms had not actively sought treatment.In accession, dropout rates in studies are high, particularly for those studies that did not use a clinical sample. This might have skew the evidence particularly with approaches that used exposure-based therapy. Furthermore, most of the studies reviewed screened out those individuals experiencing the greatest amount of distress, avoidance and co-morbidity.Therefore results are biased towards those clients who were able to tolerate treatment and whose symptoms were not as chronic. Indeed, cellular inclusion and exclusion criteria appear to have a great impact on outcome of treatment. For example, studies with a strict inclusion criteria (e.g. no co-morbidity, substance misuse, self harm) appear to have significant improvements, whilst other studies i.e. Kubany et al., (2003), allowed participants to continue with other therapy while embarking on their therapy. This makes it methodologically difficult to look exactly what has been effective in reducing PTSD symptoms. As inclusion and exclusion criteria are idiosyncratic crosswise studies, it makes it difficult to draw general conclusions regarding treatment effectiveness with a clinical population across studies.Studies frequently chose to focus therapy on identified groups, e.g. police officers. However, clients who experience PTSD do not form a homogeneous group and further, the symptoms experienced may be diverse even within a sample of individuals who have experienced the same trauma.Treatment studies often do not control for other factors that may be important contributing factors in outcome such as the ro le of education, quality of the remedy relationship, therapeutic alliance and other nonspecific factors.The literature was generally from American, British or European sources although clearly trauma is intercultural. This raises issues closely how different cultures interpret PTSD, an essentially Hesperian concept, and also whether the treatments advocated would be effective cross-culturally.Previous research has strongly indicated that PTSD is not an appropriate term to use in non-western situations (Summerfield, 1997), hence therapeutic approaches need to account for this. It is not clear in the majority of the research when the participant experienced the trauma, and at what point therapy started. Frequently these characteristics are omitted from studies, indeed making it difficult to compare effectiveness of studies. It is important to consider the types of clients who have been represented in the research and to look at whether it is representative of those who look to tr eatment. Finally, very little has been reported on the impact of other difficulties an individual is experiencing as PTSD can have a wide ranging impact on an individuals quality of life and functioning and most often clients have more complex presentations. Only very few studies reviewed controlled for this variable (see Ehlers et al., 2005). This is an internal difficulty when completing research with a trauma population as within research it is important to obtain a sample that have a similar degree of difficulties in order to assess treatment efficacy.Several papers have evaluated different types of therapy according to particular groups. However, it appears that one size does not fit all in relation to PTSID. In particular the issues of culture and gender are of importance (see Liebling Ojiambo-Ochieng, 2000 Sheppard, 2000). Individual formulations of presenting problems and contexts, which informs therapy that is satisfactory to suit individual clients needs, may in fact be more helpful. It remains important to consider individual differences and client choice when oblation trauma therapy.Trauma therapy outcome studies are limited by the fact that sufferers usually have other mental health problems alongside PTSD such as depression or social anxiety. Evaluation of effective treatment of trauma survivors therefore might need to go beyond medical diagnostic categories as most of the research excludes clients with co-morbid problems. A assorted intervention, based on clients own views, which addressed these other difficulties, may help reduce relapse and improve long-term efficacy of any PTSD treatment. As outlined in the methodological limitations section, much of the research reviewed has not used a genuine clinical sample, there are high dropout rates, widely variable inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the heterogeneity of PTSD has mayhap not yet been accounted for. It is therefore difficult to ascertain what is specifically helpful or effective within the treatment components. This seems to be the next area for consideration in research.Further research into the optimal length of treatment and timing of therapy, the effect of co-morbidity and the differing effects of individual and group therapy approaches for traumatised clients are required. Further controlled research is needed to ascertain if the types of therapies reviewed can provide long term lasting effects in reducing PTSD symptomatology.Currently the empirical data is generally limited to the assessment of short term, focused interventions, and it would be helpful to have controlled studies on longer-term treatment for more complex trauma cases. Further research would benefit from considering the clients views and experiences of therapy, this perspective was lacking in the literature reviewed. Service user and carer perspectives are beyond the scope of this review, however they have been highlighted as an important consideration within the NICE guidelines and the refore require further consideration in future research.ConclusionThere appear to be at least three treatments with excellent empirical support for treating PTSD exposure therapy, cognitive therapy or a combination of these methods. These three approaches have excellent empirical support in well-controlled clinical trials, march strong treatment effect sizes, and appear to work well across diverse populations of trauma survivors. However future studies to examine the effectiveness of these approaches in clinic settings are warranted.There is much to be learned about the treatment of PTSD. It is certain there give be no simple answers for treating people who have experienced the most horrific events life offers. Undoubtedly, combinations of treatments as proposed by Keane et al. (1994) and Resick and Schnicke (1992) may prove to be the most powerful interventions.PTSD research in this area is only in the earliest stages of its development.Finally, an assumption about the uniformity of traumatic events has been made in the literature in general. Although it is rational to speculate that fundamental similarities exist among patients who have experienced diverse traumatic events and then develop PTSD, whether these patients ordain respond to clinical interventions in the same way is an empirical question that has yet to be addressed. Studies posing a question such as this would be a welcome addition to the clinical literature Will people with PTSD resulting from combat, torture, genocide, and natural disasters all improve as well as those treated successfully following rape, motor vehicle accidents, and assaults? This is a crucial issue that requires additional scientific study in order to provide clinicians with the requisite evidence financial support the use of available techniques.Research on the prevalence of exposure to traumatic events and the prevalence of PTSD has mainly been carried out in the United States. and there are fundamental errors in assu ming that these prevalence rates apply even to other Western, developed countries. Studies that examine the prevalence of PTSD and other disorders internationally are clearly warranted. Implicit in this passport is the need to examine the extent to which current assessment instrumentation is culturally sensitive to the ways in which traumatic reactions are expressed internationally. overmuch work on this topic will be required before definitive conclusions regarding prevalence rates of PTSD internationally can be drawn.Studies of the effectiveness of the psychological treatments across cultures and ethnic groups are also needed. What may be effective for Western populations may be inadequate or possibly even unacceptable treatment for people who reside in other areas of the world and who have different world views, beliefs, and perspectives. This issue will need to be more closely examined before we can draw definitive conclusions.It is suggested that despite the type of treatment provided to individuals with trauma there is ultimately a need for a flexible, integrative approach to treatment in order to deal with the complex and varying needs of individual trauma survivors. A range of outcomes has been found with the types of approaches outlined in this review, it is unclear who will respond best to which treatment approach. However, what is important in determining the success of any psychological treatment of PTSD is that it is dependent upon establishing and maintaining a therapeutic alliance that is strong enough for the client to experience as safe and trusting for positive emotional change to occur.